Unit 9 Reflection

 This unit was all about life, and how it is classified. Taxonomy is the study of the classification of organisms. We learned about the hierarchical structure and how life is classified through taxonomy. We also learned about binomial nomenclature, which is the widely accepted process of naming species and showing their relationships to the genus in an organized manner. It was developed by a Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnean, and this form of organization is now called the Linnean system. Here you can see a diagram of the different levels of classification in taxonomy.

   Why also learned about phylogeny, and how you can observe common ancestry through phylogenetic trees and cladograms. This relates to what we learned about in the last unit regarding evolutionary relationships. We then went into depth about each of the levels of classifications, and some real world examples that help us to remember.
  First, we talked about domains and kingdoms. There are 3 domains and they are based on biochemical and genetic differences. The first domain is Archea,  which are archaebacteria that are considered extremophiles. They can only survive in the most extreme environments, places that we would think no life could ever exist. I find this fact fascinating because it is a reminder that not everything is about humans and how they live, and that this world is a vast and diverse place. The second domain is Bacteria, and it's the base of all life. There are many types; symbiotic bacteria, cyanobacteria, and actinomycetes bacteria. The third domain is Eukarya, and it consists of plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

  We then learned about bacteria and viruses and established similarities and differences between the two. Bacterial cell wall composition can be used by scientists to classify bacteria into two groups; gram-positive (a lot of peptidoglycans), and gram-negative (little peptidoglycan). We also learned about bacterium and their anatomy, spirals, cocci(spheres), and bacilli(rods). We talked about their different conditions for living, and their metabolism.

• Chemoheterotrophs- heterotrophic bacteria take in organic molecules
• Photoautotrophs- use light to convert CO2 and H2O into carbon compounds
• Chemoautotrophs- use energy directly from chemical reactions involving ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, nitrites, sulfur, or iron.
• Obligate aerobes- must have oxygen to survive
• Obligate anaerobes-can't have oxygen, botulism from canned foods
• Facultative anaerobes- alternative between oxygen and fermentation depending on change in environment

  We also learned about viruses, and how they are small infectious particles, not living cells.We also learned about the composition of viruses, and how they consist of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat and sometimes a membranous envelope.
   We also learned about fungi, and the different examples. Fungal cell walls are composed of chitin, plant cell walls are made of cellulose and they absorb food through long strands of fungi known as hyphae. Mycelium is underground hyphae that resemble roots of a plant. They also have a fruiting body, an underground reproductive system. Spores, like gametes, are haploids(single cells), and they can develop into a multicellular organism without fusing. There are three main types of fungi, Sac Fungi, Bread Molds, and Club Fungi.
   The major plant phyla include Bryophyta(mosses), Pterophyta(Ferns), Gymnosperms(cone-bearing plants), and Angiosperms(flowering plants). There are two major types of Angiosperms, Monocots(single seed leaf), and Dicots (two seed leaves).
  The animal classes can be classified as invertebrates and vertebrates. There are many phyla of invertebrates, Porifera(sponges), Cnidaria(specialized tissue), Platyhelminthes(bilateral, flatworms), Annelida(earthworms), Echinoderms(starfish and sea urchins), and Mollusca(snails and oysters). Here you can see a diagram of the different phyla from the kingdom Animalia.

   There are 5 kingdoms in taxonomy, Animalia, Monera, Fungi, Plantae, and Protista.
We went deeper into the different groups and classes of each phylum, but mainly just emphasized the phyla their unique characteristics.

• Porifera-specialized cells but no tissues, sessile, no symmetry
• Cnidaria-specialized tissue, 2 body forms: polyps and medusas
• Platyhelminthes-bilateral animals, incomplete gut, parasitic
• Mollusca- complete digestive tract, 3 classes: Gastropods, Bivalves, and Cephalopods
• Annelida- segmented bodies, coelom, 3 groups: earthworms, marine worms, and leeches
• Arthropoda-exoskeleton of chitin, segmented bodies, and jointed appendages 
• Echinodermata-maternal skeleton made of interlocking ossicles, water vascular system, complete digestive system, most reproduce sexually
• Chordata-vertebrates and some invertebrates, endoskeleton made of bone and cartilage

   There are 7 classes of vertebrates: Agnatha(Jawless fish), Chondrichthyes(cartilaginous fish with jaws), Osteichthyes(bony fish with jaws), Amphibia(four limbs, water/land), Reptilia(amniote egg surrounded by membrane), Aves(birds, presence of feathers, also amniotes), Mammalia(mammals, presence of hair, also amniotes).
  Also, I was a bit overwhelmed with all of the different phyla and classes, so I decided to do the extra credit assignment. Below you can see the concept map I made that outlines almost everything we learned about in this unit. It has been a very useful studying tool so far, and it was really fun to make.

  I still wonder about some things, like all of the organisms that we haven't discovered. Over time will taxonomy change when we make new discoveries? I also wonder how what we learned about the last unit can relate to this unit. What kind of vestigial and homologous structures can we see between the different phyla and classes? I found it really fascinating what we watched in class, in "Your Inner Fish." Just to remember that we are all connected, and with the evolutionary evidence right in front of you, is mind-blowing.
  A big part of this unit was our "What on Earth Evolved?" Presentations. I did mine on Archaeopteryx, and I really enjoyed the process. My topic was something not many people knew about, and the toughest part was trying to describe a transitional reptile and bird fossil and keep the class engaged. I overcame this obstacle in 3 ways. I made sure I used good public speaking skills. I made my slides aesthetically appealing. I also related the facts to concepts we learned in class. It was a lot of fun, and I learned a lot of things. In the future, I now know I should elaborate on the topics that I find interesting and worth to share because that will also keep people interested. Although I enjoyed presenting my Archaeopteryx project, next time, I would challenge myself to do something different, like a physical project. Below you can see my presentation.

Works Cited

Kingdom Animalia. Digital image. Eduvictors. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 May 2017. <https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEim4uelG9fkMP0Nn8wbX1Jp5mCfVrgwerdNp9W8UmEGrBFP3LmhG9hrwDXcqgVRxXuye7qeKTLZsQAkqLrZToRkfX1VRDJGfPD_MpRByg_mFXXaxV3N3xhmRtJZxCMH14wf39WSpAZ8IsJU/s1600/cl9SciCH7Fig6.jpg>.

Levels of Classification. Digital image. Grade 11 University Biology. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 May 2017. <https://uoitbio2013.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/picture1.png?w=627>.

The Three Domains of Life. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 May 2017. <http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/images/domains_sm.gif>.

Geologic Time Line Reflection

  In this project, we worked as a group to create a geological timeline using components creatively to assist in better understanding major events that occurred in the history of the earth. We used 10 meters of register tape and labelled and colored major events for each era, period, and epoch of Earth's history. We used 2mm of register tape for every 1 million years, and it was shocking to see how a lot of the more major events occurred "recently" considering the geologic time scale. Things like human existence seem like a blink of the eye considering  the entire geologic time scale. What I noticed when working on the project, is that not much occurred during the longer, earlier periods, and only simple life forms like bacteria and algae dominated. I already knew from previous lessons about how long the precambrian era was, but actually physically drawing on this scaled timeline really showed me a new point of view.
  3 major events in Earth's history would probably be the rise of oxygen in the atmosphere, the dinosaur extinction, and the splitting of Pangea. As blue-green algae and cyanobacteria photosynthesized, the levels of oxygen on the earth increased immensely during the Precambrian Era. This is extremely important and contributed to the existence of oxygen dependent organisms like ourselves.  The Pangea was a supercontinent that used to be a large mass of land that covered roughly1/3 of the earth. It was broken up during the Mesozoic Era, and it was a big part of Earth's history because it created changes in the climate and atmosphere, and it also gave us all the different continents we have today.  Lastly, the end of the Mesozoic Era marked a mass extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs who previously dominated land on Earth. Earth today would be very different if dinosaurs still roamed the earth.
   Like I mentioned before, human existence is just a blink of an eye in terms of the earth's geologic history. In the considerably "small" amount of time we have been on Earth, we have done some major irreversible damage as a species. Although a lot of major life forms arose in the later epochs of the geologic time line, some other major events are currently occurring. We are in the middle of Earth's 6 mass extinction, and it is predominantly caused by humans. We have caused tremendous change to the Earth and we have caused global temperatures to soar off the charts. As humans, in our small amount of time, we can at least have some respect for our Earth to educate each other and make sure we do not create an end to this timeline. I feel as if it is our responsibility to take care of our Earth which is so often taken for granted.
  I wonder how much we can decrease our carbon footprint as far as we've come. Right now I'm typing on a computer that was shipped most likely using fossil fuels. I'm sitting with the light on, and hopefully the power plant where the electricity is coming from is not coal-based and rather runs on wind or water power. I know I can just sit here and rant all day about global warming and how we can never get everyone to stop living their lives, because we have become such a fast paced society so focused on work and life, but we never stop to realize where we actually are, or where everything we use is actually coming from. For now we can all take small steps to reduce our waste and reduce our carbon footprint just by being educated and aware about the issue.





Works Cited:
Geologic Timeline. Digital image. MBMG. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2017. <http://mbmg.mtech.edu/graphics/time-line.gif>.

Unit 8 Reflection

   This unit was all about evolution and the different ways it is studied. We first learned about artificial selection, or breeding for desired traits, which is used by humans for work and food purposes. We also talked about natural selection and Charles Darwin's observations and conclusions. He observed that:

1. All sexually reproducing species have high genetic variation
2. Traits are inherited from parents to offspring
3. All species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support
4. Competition is severe because of limited food and resources

   There are two types of competition, inter-competition that occurs between two different species and intra-competition that occurs between two of the same species.
   Darwin's first conclusion stated that there are "winners and losers" as better traits leave more offspring. His second conclusion stated that the "winners" were the population because beneficial traits become more common. Darwin's ideas on natural selection were displayed in our Hunger Games Lab. 
  The gene pool was also discussed, as it is the total of all alleles in a population for one trait. Allele frequency is calculated by dividing the total number of one allele by the total number of all the alleles. If allele frequency has changed over time, that indicates that the population has evolved. Lethal alleles, if recessive, can be hidden in heterozygotes, yet beneficial if conditions change. 
   Speciation was also a major topic we learned about this unit. It is the process of 2 or more species evolving from one existing species. It is caused by reproductive isolation, either temporal(timing), behavioral(courtship/attraction), or geographical(physical barriers).
   We also talked about how descendants of common ancestors have common traits. Embryology shows common ancestry. The patterns of speciation are as follows: Punctuated equilibrium, which occurs rapidly, or gradualism, which occurs slowly. Evo-devo is the study of the process of evolutionary development in multicellular organisms. Hox genes are relatively unchanged overtime(highly conservative), and they are responsible for turning on other genes during development. Vestigial structures are also known as evolutionary left-overs.




  Fossils are formed in these four steps:

1. Organism dies
2. Organism is covered in ash, sediment, or clay
3. Pressure and chemicals cause organism to become rock
4. Hard parts fossilize better than soft parts(fossil bias)

  Index fossils with known time periods are used for comparison. Relative dating is using the placement of fossils with sediment layers to estimate time periods of existence. Homologous structures are same structures, different functions. Analogous structures are different structures, same function. Convergent evolution is the process where unrelated organisms evolve similar structures.
  Natural selection occurs in 3 ways:

1. Directional selection-favors phenotype at one extreme
2. Stabilizing selection-favors intermediate/medium phenotype
3. Disruptive selection-favors phenotypes at both extremes

   Genetic drift is when a random event drastically changes a population and its allele frequency changes as a result. After genetic drift, genetic variation decreases, making populations less resistant to change. Genetic drift changes allele frequency due to chance alone by this random event.

Types of change include:

1. Genetic Drift-random event drastically changes population
2. Gene flow-move of alleles from one population to another
3. Sexual Selection-traits that improve mating success chosen rather than for survival
4. Natural selection-traits chosen advantageous for survival

   Lastly, the history of life was discussed in terms of the geologic time scale. Adaptive radiation is the rapid speciation from a common ancestor. First was the pre-cambrian era, then the paleozoic era which included the cambrian, ordovician, silurian, devonian, carboniferous, and permian periods. Then the mesozoic era occurred and it was known as the age of the reptiles, with the triassic, jurassic, and cretaceous periods. Then the cenozoic era occurred where mammals dominate, and the periods include tertiary(paleogene and neogene)and then quaternary. We are currently in the holocene era, but only a blink of an eye in terms of the earth's history.

  As for my self growth, I feel as if I am more assertive and I am speaking up for myself more. I am no longer hesitant to ask for something, because now I know that the worst possible thing that can happen is for someone to say no. I feel like I am more assertive socially, but personally I feel like I can improve and be more assertive with myself. I need to start being more assertive with myself so I can get work done when I need to to avoid procrastination.

Works Cited

A., Jonathan. Evolution. Digital image. Study Blue. N.p., 24 Mar. 2015. Web. 11 Apr. 2017.

Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibria. Digital image. American Museum of Natural History. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Apr. 2017. <http://www.amnh.org/learn/resources/images/evolution_W4E3_punctuated.jpg>.

How Fossils Are Formed. Digital image. In. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Apr. 2017. <https://image.slidesharecdn.com/fossilsppt-120502044843-phpapp01/95/fossils-ppt-6-728.jpg?cb=1335934187>.

Hunger Games Lab Final Analysis

1. In this lab we had 3 different species(pinchers, stumpys, and knucklers) compete for reproduction and survival with limited resources.
2. The pincher phenotype could capture food quickly and easily because fingers can pickup items easily rather than wrists and knuckles. 
3. The population evolved, because as shown in the graph and data table, the pinchers outlived the stumpys and knucklers overtime, dominating the population. In the end, the "a" allele frequency dominated the "A" allele frequency in a ratio of 77:23.
   
4. Some things in this lab were random, like the placement of food and number of food pieces necessary for survival. The non-random occurrences were the reproduction of individuals and deaths of individuals. Because of this, the pinchers evolved to dominate the population.
5. If the food was larger, then the stumpys would have the advantage over pinchers and knucklers. In nature, events like these could occur when a limited resource, such as food, changes. That change would affect the natural selection of the species. 
6. Without incomplete dominance in the knucklers, the species would eventually have reproductive isolation and grow apart because of disruptive selection. 
7. Natural selection goes hand in hand with evolution. It uses phenotypes of species best suited to survive and reproduce to change the genotype of the population over time. Ultimately, natural selection is one type of change that causes evolution. 
8. Different behavioral strategies were observed. A stumpy had sat on a pile of corks until everyone left.This stumpy was successful and survived. Also, some knucklers pushed away corks to form a pile hidden behind them, which was successful at first, but people soon discovered it. Also, people would use their bodies to guard food and block others from the source of food. Pinchers and knucklers put corks in their pockets and shirts as a container. These strategies increased the likelihood of survival and reproduction by allowing individuals to obtain more food. This would affect the allele frequency by keeping certain species alive longer than others, because of their strong desire to survive and reproduce. This often happens in nature, for example, many animals use a defense mechanism where they appear bigger to intimidate predators and competition and to protect their resources. 
9. In evolution, the genotype evolves after natural selection acts on the phenotype. The phenotype is what natural selection acts on for survival, but over time this changes the genotype of the species through evolution. 
10. If there was a human disturbance or natural disaster causing more limited resources, would behavioral strategies be the only way to survive, or would pinchers just completely dominate the population? Or is it just luck, like in genetic drift?

Unit 7 Reflection

   This unit was all about Ecology, and the different aspects and how they all affect the Earth. We talked about the difference between habitats, all aspects of where an organism lives, and niches, all factors that the species needs to survive. Biotic factors are living things, and abiotic factors are nonliving things. An important theme in ecology was homeostasis and interdependence. Homeostasis refers to the idea that environments are healthiest when in balance. Interdependence is a concept that all living things in an ecosystem rely on each other as well as abiotic factors for survival. Another key idea is that all energy originally comes from the sun, then to producers, and then to consumers. 

Diagram showing global productivity in different regions. 

   Producers(autotrophs) provide energy for other organisms in an ecosystem. Consumers(heterotrophs) are organisms that consume energy by eating other living, or once-living things. There are herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, and detritivores. Trophic levels are levels in a food chain that are based on what something eats. Food chains and food webs model the flow of energy in an ecosystem in different ways. 
   Energy pyramids show how energy is transferred up the food chain. Food web dynamics explain the domino effects that occurs when populations at the top and bottom of the food chain decline. Another important concept is the levels of organization: organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere.
   The 10% rule states that of energy produced/consumed at each trophic level, only 10% of that energy is transfered up the food chain. This is because the other 90% is lost through heat and waste. In population ecology, terms like density and dispersion are used. Density refers to the number of individuals in a given area, and dispersion refers to the pattern of spacing among those individuals in that area. Some factors that can affect population size are immigration, emigration, births, deaths, disease, predators, limited resources and competition.
   Exponential growth in population is most common in bacteria and viruses and well as species rebounding from near extinction. Exponential growth cannot be sustained in any population because they reach limits known as the carrying capacity(K). Carrying capacity is the maximum population size and environment can support. In the logistic growth model, the rate of population increase slows down as carrying capacity is reached, it does not level off. 
   Another topic discussed was ecological succession, which is the sequence of changes in an ecosystem in response to a disturbance. Primary succession is when succession begins without soil to start. Secondary succession begins in an area where soil remains after the disturbance. The stages of succession are as follows: Pioneer species(grasses, lichen, moss), intermediate species(shrubs and tress), and climax community(trees at full maturity). 

Diagram showing the different stages of succession and examples of the types of plant species commonly involved. 

   The nutrient cycles include the water, carbon, phosphorous, and nitrogen cycles. Water is essential to all life. Carbon is the building blocks for all life. Nitrogen is essential to life in the form of DNA and proteins. Phosphorous is critical to life in DNA, ATP, and lipids. 

   Another topic discussed was biodiversity, which is the total number of species in an ecosystem. Genetic diversity is related to all the different genes within a population and between populations. Species diversity is the variety of species in an ecosystem or biosphere. Ecosystem diversity is the different types of ecosystems throughout the planet. An endangered species is in danger of becoming extinct, while a threatened species is at risk for being endangered. Mass extinctions are widespread, rapid, decreases in biodiversity. Only 5 in history have occurred, but we are currently in the middle of the 6th. This is related to the rapid pace of human population growth. Background extinctions are extinctions that happen normally. 

   The main causes of species loss can be traced to 4 major threats. The first, habitat loss, is caused by human farming and development. The second, exotic species, are caused by humans relocating species from their native location. The third is overexploitation, caused by human harvesting of wild plants or animals. The fourth is change in climate, because species are adapted to a specific range of abiotic factors by nature, and drastic changes outside of their niches causes species to die(especially plants i.e drought or excessive rainfall).

   Plants are the producers, or foundation for the entire ecosystem. From the sun's energy, they provide to the rest of the consumers in the ecosystem. Without them, there's nothing. I wonder how in the future, some super industrialized cities will have enough oxygen for humans to breath considering the few trees. Already, with fossil fuel pollution it is hard to breath in big cities, but will it get worse? How can this be prevented so we can take a step back from the industrialization and restore parts of our natural ecosystem?

   For our conservation biologist project, we easily came up our topic: the arctic tundra. We began our team contract and assigned roles for research with ease. But when it came time to condense our research and begin writing the slides, I ended up doing the entire thing. Luckily, we were able to finish our recordings in class, where Kai then volunteered to do the editing. Overall, it was a rocky experience, because it was difficult to contact people when I needed to, but I think it has made me more assertive. Overall, I think I had been more passive and patient with the group to an extent that was creating conflict for the terms of the project getting done. The experience has given me more of an active voice to listen to others, but make clear what I would like.
   We also watched the story of stuff videos and I posted on my blog a summary and reflection of another video, as well as notes and a response to a question about "The Story of Stuff." You can view it here: Story of Stuff and Story of Cosmetics

Works Cited

Carbon Cycle. Digital image. National Center for Atmospheric Research. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://eo.ucar.edu/kids/green/images/carboncycle_sm.jpg>.

Global productivity and sunlight angles on earth. Digital image. Quia. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://www.quia.com/files/quia/users/lmcgee/ecology/sun_angle_latitude.gif>.

Nitrogen Cycle. Digital image. Partnerships for Environmental Education and Rural Health. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <http://peer.tamu.edu/curriculum_modules/Environ_Hazard/images/nitrogencyclesmall.jpg>.

Phosphorous Cycle. Digital image. Wordpress. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://raceingminds.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/phosphorous-cycle.jpg>.

Stages of Succession. Digital image. Slide Share. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <http://image.slidesharecdn.com/succession2009-110426161751-phpapp01/95/succession-2009-19-728.jpg?cb=1303834862>.

Water Cycle. Digital image. NASA Precipitation Measurement Missions. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://pmm.nasa.gov/education/sites/default/files/article_images/Water-Cycle-Art2A.png>.

 

Story of Cosmetics

Summary and Reflection:

The story of cosmetics was about all the toxic chemicals that are put in everyday consumer products. Exposure to these toxins have been known to damage reproductive organs, and induce disorders like autism, and asthma. Many of these chemicals are known to be carcinogens, which are cancer causing chemicals. Also, it mentioned how the FDA does not even require all ingredients of these cosmetic products to be listed. The FDA doesn’t assess the safety of many of the ingredients in these products. Since 1938, they have only banned 8 out of 12,000 ingredients used in cosmetics. Because of the lack of regulation, cosmetics industries self-assess their products. The lack of government action has ultimately lead to the exposure of toxic chemicals in our daily used products.

Now I feel like I am more skeptical as to what I am putting on my skin, and more curious about what these things mean. I was always someone who would read the labels, but I didn’t do anything about it because I didn’t know what these things were. After all, they wouldn’t be allowed to buy if they weren’t safe right? The interesting statistics brought up about the lack of regulation in the FDA has me worried about everything I use. How do I know my toothpaste, deodorant, chapstick, and shampoo are even safe? Women use an average of 12 cosmetic products daily, while 6 for men. I hadn’t  even realize how many products I really use until I thought about all the chemicals in them. I think overall it has made me more aware of how many things I have, and how most of them are really harmful.

Story of Stuff

Notes:

• The materials economy runs through a process of extraction, production, distribution, consumption, and disposal.
• Every step has an interaction between the system and the real societies, cultures, and environments. 
• We are running out of natural resources, for a number of reasons. For example, the US has only 5% of the world's population but uses 30% of global resources. 
• In the Amazon Forest alone, we are losing 2,000 trees per minute.
• In production, toxic chemicals are added to the natural resources. 
• Externalized costs mean that the social cost is more taxing than the product's cost.
• 99% of items run through the system to later be thrown away after 6 months. 
• The average US person consumes twice as much as they did 50 years ago.
• Planned obsolescence are designed for the dump, so we throw things away and buy new ones.
• Perceived obsolescence convinces you to throw stuff away that us perfectly fine, 
• People in the U.S. see more advertisements in one year than people did 50 years ago in a lifetime.
• The average united states resident produces about 4.5 pounds of garbage per day.
• The garbage is dumped into landfills or incinerated, which both contribute to pollution and climate change.
• Recycling is not enough because many products are not designed to be recycled. 
• People united can change the way the system works. 

Q3: Annie says “recycling doesn’t get to the core of the problem.” Why not?

   For every one garbage can of waste, we put out, 70 other garbage cans of waste were used to produce the waste in that one garbage can. Also,  much of our garbage cannot be recycled because it either contains too many toxins, or it is designed not to be recycled. For example, there are juice boxes that are lined with layers of metal, paper, and plastic, so they cannot be separated for recycling. Although recycling is extremely important to help reduce waste and reuse products, the fact of the matter is that there are more things we can do to make a difference, because just recycling isn't enough.