Hunger Games Lab Final Analysis

1. In this lab we had 3 different species(pinchers, stumpys, and knucklers) compete for reproduction and survival with limited resources.
2. The pincher phenotype could capture food quickly and easily because fingers can pickup items easily rather than wrists and knuckles. 
3. The population evolved, because as shown in the graph and data table, the pinchers outlived the stumpys and knucklers overtime, dominating the population. In the end, the "a" allele frequency dominated the "A" allele frequency in a ratio of 77:23.
   
4. Some things in this lab were random, like the placement of food and number of food pieces necessary for survival. The non-random occurrences were the reproduction of individuals and deaths of individuals. Because of this, the pinchers evolved to dominate the population.
5. If the food was larger, then the stumpys would have the advantage over pinchers and knucklers. In nature, events like these could occur when a limited resource, such as food, changes. That change would affect the natural selection of the species. 
6. Without incomplete dominance in the knucklers, the species would eventually have reproductive isolation and grow apart because of disruptive selection. 
7. Natural selection goes hand in hand with evolution. It uses phenotypes of species best suited to survive and reproduce to change the genotype of the population over time. Ultimately, natural selection is one type of change that causes evolution. 
8. Different behavioral strategies were observed. A stumpy had sat on a pile of corks until everyone left.This stumpy was successful and survived. Also, some knucklers pushed away corks to form a pile hidden behind them, which was successful at first, but people soon discovered it. Also, people would use their bodies to guard food and block others from the source of food. Pinchers and knucklers put corks in their pockets and shirts as a container. These strategies increased the likelihood of survival and reproduction by allowing individuals to obtain more food. This would affect the allele frequency by keeping certain species alive longer than others, because of their strong desire to survive and reproduce. This often happens in nature, for example, many animals use a defense mechanism where they appear bigger to intimidate predators and competition and to protect their resources. 
9. In evolution, the genotype evolves after natural selection acts on the phenotype. The phenotype is what natural selection acts on for survival, but over time this changes the genotype of the species through evolution. 
10. If there was a human disturbance or natural disaster causing more limited resources, would behavioral strategies be the only way to survive, or would pinchers just completely dominate the population? Or is it just luck, like in genetic drift?

Unit 7 Reflection

   This unit was all about Ecology, and the different aspects and how they all affect the Earth. We talked about the difference between habitats, all aspects of where an organism lives, and niches, all factors that the species needs to survive. Biotic factors are living things, and abiotic factors are nonliving things. An important theme in ecology was homeostasis and interdependence. Homeostasis refers to the idea that environments are healthiest when in balance. Interdependence is a concept that all living things in an ecosystem rely on each other as well as abiotic factors for survival. Another key idea is that all energy originally comes from the sun, then to producers, and then to consumers. 

Diagram showing global productivity in different regions. 

   Producers(autotrophs) provide energy for other organisms in an ecosystem. Consumers(heterotrophs) are organisms that consume energy by eating other living, or once-living things. There are herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, and detritivores. Trophic levels are levels in a food chain that are based on what something eats. Food chains and food webs model the flow of energy in an ecosystem in different ways. 
   Energy pyramids show how energy is transferred up the food chain. Food web dynamics explain the domino effects that occurs when populations at the top and bottom of the food chain decline. Another important concept is the levels of organization: organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere.
   The 10% rule states that of energy produced/consumed at each trophic level, only 10% of that energy is transfered up the food chain. This is because the other 90% is lost through heat and waste. In population ecology, terms like density and dispersion are used. Density refers to the number of individuals in a given area, and dispersion refers to the pattern of spacing among those individuals in that area. Some factors that can affect population size are immigration, emigration, births, deaths, disease, predators, limited resources and competition.
   Exponential growth in population is most common in bacteria and viruses and well as species rebounding from near extinction. Exponential growth cannot be sustained in any population because they reach limits known as the carrying capacity(K). Carrying capacity is the maximum population size and environment can support. In the logistic growth model, the rate of population increase slows down as carrying capacity is reached, it does not level off. 
   Another topic discussed was ecological succession, which is the sequence of changes in an ecosystem in response to a disturbance. Primary succession is when succession begins without soil to start. Secondary succession begins in an area where soil remains after the disturbance. The stages of succession are as follows: Pioneer species(grasses, lichen, moss), intermediate species(shrubs and tress), and climax community(trees at full maturity). 

Diagram showing the different stages of succession and examples of the types of plant species commonly involved. 

   The nutrient cycles include the water, carbon, phosphorous, and nitrogen cycles. Water is essential to all life. Carbon is the building blocks for all life. Nitrogen is essential to life in the form of DNA and proteins. Phosphorous is critical to life in DNA, ATP, and lipids. 

   Another topic discussed was biodiversity, which is the total number of species in an ecosystem. Genetic diversity is related to all the different genes within a population and between populations. Species diversity is the variety of species in an ecosystem or biosphere. Ecosystem diversity is the different types of ecosystems throughout the planet. An endangered species is in danger of becoming extinct, while a threatened species is at risk for being endangered. Mass extinctions are widespread, rapid, decreases in biodiversity. Only 5 in history have occurred, but we are currently in the middle of the 6th. This is related to the rapid pace of human population growth. Background extinctions are extinctions that happen normally. 

   The main causes of species loss can be traced to 4 major threats. The first, habitat loss, is caused by human farming and development. The second, exotic species, are caused by humans relocating species from their native location. The third is overexploitation, caused by human harvesting of wild plants or animals. The fourth is change in climate, because species are adapted to a specific range of abiotic factors by nature, and drastic changes outside of their niches causes species to die(especially plants i.e drought or excessive rainfall).

   Plants are the producers, or foundation for the entire ecosystem. From the sun's energy, they provide to the rest of the consumers in the ecosystem. Without them, there's nothing. I wonder how in the future, some super industrialized cities will have enough oxygen for humans to breath considering the few trees. Already, with fossil fuel pollution it is hard to breath in big cities, but will it get worse? How can this be prevented so we can take a step back from the industrialization and restore parts of our natural ecosystem?

   For our conservation biologist project, we easily came up our topic: the arctic tundra. We began our team contract and assigned roles for research with ease. But when it came time to condense our research and begin writing the slides, I ended up doing the entire thing. Luckily, we were able to finish our recordings in class, where Kai then volunteered to do the editing. Overall, it was a rocky experience, because it was difficult to contact people when I needed to, but I think it has made me more assertive. Overall, I think I had been more passive and patient with the group to an extent that was creating conflict for the terms of the project getting done. The experience has given me more of an active voice to listen to others, but make clear what I would like.
   We also watched the story of stuff videos and I posted on my blog a summary and reflection of another video, as well as notes and a response to a question about "The Story of Stuff." You can view it here: Story of Stuff and Story of Cosmetics

Works Cited

Carbon Cycle. Digital image. National Center for Atmospheric Research. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://eo.ucar.edu/kids/green/images/carboncycle_sm.jpg>.

Global productivity and sunlight angles on earth. Digital image. Quia. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://www.quia.com/files/quia/users/lmcgee/ecology/sun_angle_latitude.gif>.

Nitrogen Cycle. Digital image. Partnerships for Environmental Education and Rural Health. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <http://peer.tamu.edu/curriculum_modules/Environ_Hazard/images/nitrogencyclesmall.jpg>.

Phosphorous Cycle. Digital image. Wordpress. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://raceingminds.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/phosphorous-cycle.jpg>.

Stages of Succession. Digital image. Slide Share. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <http://image.slidesharecdn.com/succession2009-110426161751-phpapp01/95/succession-2009-19-728.jpg?cb=1303834862>.

Water Cycle. Digital image. NASA Precipitation Measurement Missions. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2017. <https://pmm.nasa.gov/education/sites/default/files/article_images/Water-Cycle-Art2A.png>.

 

Story of Cosmetics

Summary and Reflection:

The story of cosmetics was about all the toxic chemicals that are put in everyday consumer products. Exposure to these toxins have been known to damage reproductive organs, and induce disorders like autism, and asthma. Many of these chemicals are known to be carcinogens, which are cancer causing chemicals. Also, it mentioned how the FDA does not even require all ingredients of these cosmetic products to be listed. The FDA doesn’t assess the safety of many of the ingredients in these products. Since 1938, they have only banned 8 out of 12,000 ingredients used in cosmetics. Because of the lack of regulation, cosmetics industries self-assess their products. The lack of government action has ultimately lead to the exposure of toxic chemicals in our daily used products.

Now I feel like I am more skeptical as to what I am putting on my skin, and more curious about what these things mean. I was always someone who would read the labels, but I didn’t do anything about it because I didn’t know what these things were. After all, they wouldn’t be allowed to buy if they weren’t safe right? The interesting statistics brought up about the lack of regulation in the FDA has me worried about everything I use. How do I know my toothpaste, deodorant, chapstick, and shampoo are even safe? Women use an average of 12 cosmetic products daily, while 6 for men. I hadn’t  even realize how many products I really use until I thought about all the chemicals in them. I think overall it has made me more aware of how many things I have, and how most of them are really harmful.

Story of Stuff

Notes:

• The materials economy runs through a process of extraction, production, distribution, consumption, and disposal.
• Every step has an interaction between the system and the real societies, cultures, and environments. 
• We are running out of natural resources, for a number of reasons. For example, the US has only 5% of the world's population but uses 30% of global resources. 
• In the Amazon Forest alone, we are losing 2,000 trees per minute.
• In production, toxic chemicals are added to the natural resources. 
• Externalized costs mean that the social cost is more taxing than the product's cost.
• 99% of items run through the system to later be thrown away after 6 months. 
• The average US person consumes twice as much as they did 50 years ago.
• Planned obsolescence are designed for the dump, so we throw things away and buy new ones.
• Perceived obsolescence convinces you to throw stuff away that us perfectly fine, 
• People in the U.S. see more advertisements in one year than people did 50 years ago in a lifetime.
• The average united states resident produces about 4.5 pounds of garbage per day.
• The garbage is dumped into landfills or incinerated, which both contribute to pollution and climate change.
• Recycling is not enough because many products are not designed to be recycled. 
• People united can change the way the system works. 

Q3: Annie says “recycling doesn’t get to the core of the problem.” Why not?

   For every one garbage can of waste, we put out, 70 other garbage cans of waste were used to produce the waste in that one garbage can. Also,  much of our garbage cannot be recycled because it either contains too many toxins, or it is designed not to be recycled. For example, there are juice boxes that are lined with layers of metal, paper, and plastic, so they cannot be separated for recycling. Although recycling is extremely important to help reduce waste and reuse products, the fact of the matter is that there are more things we can do to make a difference, because just recycling isn't enough. 

Unit 6 Reflection

This unit was all about biotechnology. The introduction of biotechnology discussed how it is known as the study and manipulation if living things in order to benefit mankind. This large field focuses on understanding DNA, proteins, and inheritance. There is a long timeline of biotechnology.

•  It began in 4,000 BCE in the classical biotechnology time period, where dairy farmers developed in the middle east and Egyptians used yeast to bake and learned to make wine through fermentation. 
• In 3,000 BCE Peruvians selected and cultivated potatoes.
•  In 2,000 BCE Egyptians, Sumerians, and Chinese develop techniques of fermentation: brewing and cheese making. 
• In 1500 CE acidic cooking techniques led to sour kraut yogurt- 2 examples of using beneficial bacteria to flavor and preserve food. Aztecs make a cake from spirulina algae.
• In 1861 french chemist Louis Pasteur develops pasteurization: preserving food by heating it to destroy harmful microbes.
• In 1910 American biologists Thomas Hunt Morgan discovers that genes are located on chromosomes
• In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick Describe the double helix of DNA using x-ray diffraction patterns of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.
• In the early 1970's Paul Berg, Stanley Cohen, and Herbert Boyer develop ways to splice DNA, introducing recombinant DNA techniques.

A big emphasis in the introduction to biotechnology was the 4 real-life applications of the science and its effect. 

• Industrial and Environmental: Fermentation- the use of bacteria or yeast in an oxygen-free environment to convert sugars into acids, gasses or alcohol. (ex: food like yogurt, cheese, beer, wine, bread etc)
• Medical and Pharmaceutical: Gene therapy-putting a healthy copy of a gene into cells of a person whose copy is defective, Germ Line gene therapy- insert the gene into germ cells(sperm/egg), Somatic gene therapy- insert the gene into specific cells w/defective expression of the gene. 
• Agricultural: Classical breeding- individuals with desired traits are bred over many generations. GMO/Transgenic organisms are the product of recombinant DNA(Foreign DNA inserted in them)
• Diagnostic: Genetic testing- search for genes or DNA segments indicating risk for various diseases or disorders.

An interesting infographic about GMOs 

We also talked about the "technologies of biotechnology" and the different steps and procedures commonly used. We talked about Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR) first, and then we talked about Gel Electrophoresis. We had already learned about gel electrophoresis when we did our Candy Electrophoresis Lab and our virtual lab.
   The lab was long, but it was lots of fun. It really helped me understand how gel electrophoresis really works. Although some errors got in everyone's way(as mentioned in the link), I feel like I have a better understanding of why each step in the procedure was there. Also, I learned how to use a micropipette to fill the wells of the gel after extracting the colored dyes from candies.

PCR: A procedure to amplify a specific DNA region that yields millions of copies of a sequence of DNA. It is the first step in preparing DNA for many experiments like gel electrophoresis and any other form of analyzation. The process makes millions of copies of the small DNA fragment so it is easier to study.
Check out this video that explains PCR: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XPAp6dgl14

Steps of PCR:

1. Denature the double stranded DNA with heat
2. Anneal the primers to single stranded DNA above and below the region of interest. *A primer is a small fragment of DNA that bonds with a specific sequence.
3. Extend primers with DNA polymerase yielding new double stranded DNA. This cycle repeats steps 1-3 usually 20-40 times. The copies from PCR occur in exponential amplification which means after 30 cycles, DNA is amplified over a billion-fold. 

Helpful diagram displaying PCR

Gel Electrophoresis is the use of electricity to separate DNA fragments based on size. Large pieces travel slower than small pieces, and the results of distance traveled by the unknown lengths are compared to those of known lengths. It has many different applications such as forensics, biochemistry, genetic diagnosis, etc.

Sequencing was also discussed in the vodcast. Sequencing by definition is determining the exact order or sequence of a given DNA strand. DNA polymerase, primers, extra bases, and fluorescent dyes are all used to create copies. These copies are one base longer and contain fluorescent dyes attached. They are then electrophoresed and analyzed with a computer. The result is an electropherogram and the colored bases represent 1 of 4 bases. Finally, the sequence of bases is recorded.

Recombinant DNA was also discussed, where DNA of one organism is inserted into the DNA of another organism. Recombinant DNA or rDNA is also known as genetic engineering. The result of rDNA is GMO's (genetically modified organisms) or transgenic organisms. The steps followed to use rDNA technology in bacteria is as follows.

1. Gene of interest: know the location and sequence of your gene(above and below it)
2. The restriction enzyme cuts DNA wherever it reads a specific sequence. It latches onto the restriction site. Each restriction enzyme leaves a sticky end at the cut, which allows DNA to bond other DNA. 
3. Plasmids: circular DNA found in prokaryotes contains a replication gene that tells the plasmid to be copied. Typically it contains genes with antibiotic resistance that are small enough to be passed through pores of the cell membrane.
4. Ligase: an enzyme that re-attaches base pairs. 

The process of transforming bacteria to mass produce a protein product:

1. Isolate the DNA by finding the gene of interest and organism to insert the gene into
2. Get the plasmid, and know what antibiotic it is naturally resistant to
3. Digest  the DNA by finding a restriction enzyme that will cut the plasmid once above and below the gene
4. Mix the digested DNA(plasmid + gene)
5. Add ligase to attach sticky ends
6. Mix recombinant plasmid with the bacteria
7. Plate bacteria on agar with the antibiotic mixed in (only those with the plasmid(antibiotic resistance) will survive)
8. Grow the transformed bacteria and transfer to broth(liquid agar) to make many bacteria expressing the gene
9. Extract and purify the protein the inserted gene produced. 

Recombinant DNA technology has an interesting history. It was discovered when Herb Boyer and Stanley Cohen met at a conference. With their combined knowledge of restriction enzymes and isolating genes, they were able to work on the toad/bacteria rDNA together in the March of 1973. They discovered how DNA could be transferred between different species, and the world of genetic engineering was born. 

Another topic was the pGLO lab, which elaborated on the previous vodcast. It was about the bacterial transformation of an e.coli bacteria, using the presence of plasmid for a fluorescent glowing reaction.  My pGLO Lab Analysis and this video do a great job of explaining the process. Without doing the virtual lab, and the pGLO lab, I would have little understanding of how the procedure occurs, and why every step does what it does.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZyFX9megs8
   I learned how to predict which bacteria would glow, grow, or have nothing at all. For example, the plate with just LB, or lysogeny broth which makes the bacteria grow, would have bacteria on the plate. The plate with LB/amp (ampicillin, the antibiotic which the plasmid is resistant to) without the plasmid would not grow. The plate with LB/amp with the plasmid, would grow. Lastly, the plate with LB/amp/ara (arabanose is the sugar that acts as a promoter of the GFP gene, controlling its expression) would grow bacteria and glow with green flouresecnt protein. 

A picture of the results of another group in the class.

The last, most unique topic explored was about bioethics, and how we should answer not only ethical but bioethical questions. I feel like it has really opened my eyes to what my morals and values are, which will help me make ethical decisions in the future. The answer to ethical questions come from your morals(your justification of what is right or wrong), and your values(what is most important based off of your unique, personal experiences). The same approach is taken when you are faced with a bioethical question. You must first clarify your values, then identify the issue. Find as many options possible, and then list the pros and cons of each decision . Rank your ideas from best to worst, and once you've come to a decision, defend it. 

After reading articles in class, I wonder about all the infinite possibilities and ideas people can come up with to apply biotech. After listening to summaries of other classmate's articles, I was intrigued by the various fields and forms biotech took. I did further research on my own article about gene editing tools used to cure genetic diseases caused by mutations which you can find on my blog: Bioethics Reading. That's why it was a bit of a struggle for me to get started on my 20-time project, because I wasn't used to such vast boundaries. Usually, there is a set goal, but I think this free- thinking has really reignited my creativity. 

Lastly, I have been checking in on my New Year Goals, and I have found that I've been improving my studying skills. I can identify the forms of studying that are best for me, much quicker for each topic, but I still struggle with time management. As for drinking more water, I have bought a new water bottle, and I have been motivated to stay hydrated. I think overall, I am making good progress for both of my goals, but there is always room for improvement. 

Works Cited:

GMO infographic. Digital image. Kids Right to Know. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2017. <http://www.kidsrighttoknow.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/What-is-a-GMO.jpg>.

Polymerase Chain Reaction - PCR. Digital image. Wikimedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2017. <https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Polymerase_chain_reaction.svg/835px-Polymerase_chain_reaction.svg.png>.

pGLO Lab Analysis

pGLO Observations, Data Recording & Analysis

1.

Obtain your team plates.  Observe your set of  “+pGLO” plates under room light and with UV light.  Record numbers of colonies and color of colonies. Fill in the table below. Plate Number of Colonies Color of colonies under room light Color of colonies under   UV light - pGLO LB 0 tan tan - pGLO LB/amp N/A N/A N/A + pGLO LB/amp 1 tan tan + pGLO LB/amp/ara 4 tan fluorescent green

2.	What two new traits do your transformed bacteria have?
	The bacteria are now resistant to ampicillin(antibiotic), and glow fluorescent green under UV light.
3.	Estimate how many bacteria were in the 100 uL of bacteria that you spread on each plate. Explain your logic. Because each plate has 100 microliters of bacteria spread on it, the number of bacteria is the same for each plate. The volume of 1 E. Coli bacteria is about 1 micrometer cubed, which is equivalent to 0.001 microliters. 1 microliter(the volume of each bacteria) is equal to 1, 000 micrometers (or 1,000 bacteria). Since there are 100 microliters of bacteria spread on each plate, and 1,000 micrometers of bacteria 1,000x100 gives the answer of 100,000 bacteria on each plate. 100,000 bacteria(micrometers) is equivalent to the 100 microliters spread.
4.	What is the role of arabinose in the plates?
	The role of the arabinose sugar is the key component for making the bacteria on the plate (which were resistant to ampicillin, and contained the plasmid) glow. It is a promoter of the gene, allowing it to be expressed.
5.	List and briefly explain three current uses for GFP (green fluorescent protein) in research or applied science. GFP is a protein extracted from a jellyfish gene, which is commonly used to tag genes and cells of interest with its fluorescent properties. It can be used to identify expressed genes, making it easier for research scientists to observe their results. Some common applications are GFP being used to track and label cancer cells that can travel throughout the body. Some genetic engineers and breeders are also incorporating GFP into the cells of living things like fish(i.e. glo-fish).
6.	Give an example of another application of genetic engineering. The use of transgenic organisms, or creating GMOs (genetically modified organisms) in foods. A specific example is genetically modified foods. Some corn with GMOs can produce a poison to kill insects without pesticides. This contributes to the agricultural industry, making it a lot easier to produce mass amounts of crops without the conflict of naturally occurring environmental factors. Photos: Icing the tubes with transformation solution during the lab. Transferring the cold tubes to the heat bath. Incubating the tubes with and without the plasmid(-pGLO and +pGLO) Results after two days (under normal light0 Results after two days under UV light

Bioethics Reading

 After reading the article, "CRISPR gene editing tool used to treat genetic disease in an animal for the first time," by Peter Dockrill on January 4, 2016,  I was intrigued by the biotechonological advancements that were displayed. The article talks about how the CRISPR gene editing tool was used to treat a genetic mutation in a mouse for the first time.
   The acronym CRISPR stands for: clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats. This tool uses pieces of prokaryotic DNA with "short, receptive base sequences," along with pieces of spacer DNA which are exposed to foreign DNA like plasmids or viruses. The reason behind it is because the CRISPR gene is really an important component of the immune systems of bacteria and other unicellular organisms. For now, this tool is currently the simplest and most precise method of genome editing. 
   The article explained how CRISPR was used to treat the genetic disorder of DMD or Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. DMD is caused by a genetic mutation which, according to the article, affects 1 in 5,000 human males. 
   Researchers from Duke University used an adult mouse model of DMD to carry out the experiment. The CRISPR system was programmed to cut out the dysfunctional exon on the protein of the gene, which urges the body's natural repair system to attach the remaining gene together.  This results in a functioning version of the gene that is shortened. 
  The technique was applied when the gene therapy was applied directly into the leg muscle of the mouse. It had been restored in strength because it had a new supply of dystrophin.
  According to the article, "They injected the CRISPR/AVV(virus) combination into the animal's bloodstream. This resulted in partial dystrophin corrections in other muscles throughout the body including the heart- which is significant, as heart failure is a common cause of death for patients of DMD."
  Overall, the results were promising, and with further research and development, the goal is to start clinical trials. This breakthrough shows the potential of many benefits to the many people with genetic disorders caused by mutations.  If other experiments conducted in the future are as successful, this system could be a game-changer. 
   This article doesn't show any potential risks from the study at the moment, but I believe some risks may appear. Overtime, there is a possibility that other diseases may develop if the important, though DMD causing gene is cut. 
  Although there are some risks, CRISPR is a great way to treat a disease like DMD, and in my opinion, the benefits outweigh the costs. Although it can cause inherited diseases, or restrict the function of genes that can kill cancerous cells, a way to stop DMD directly seems more beneficial. The constant suffering of  people with the muscle deteriorating diseases is more of a moral issue to debate. When someone is in pain, the instinct is to stop it as soon as possible. If it were me, I would like to live happily and live present, and focus on tackling the current issue rather than worrying about future risks. 

Diagram of how the CRISPR system functions

Visual aid to understanding the effects of the muscle deterioration caused by Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Effects of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Works Cited

"CRISPR: A Game-changing Genetic Engineering Technique." Science in the News. N.p., 31 July 2014. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/crispr-a-game-changing-genetic-engineering-technique/>. 

"CRISPR." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR>. 

CRISPR/CAS9 diagram. Digital image. Advanced Analytical Automating Genomic Discovery. N.p., 2015. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <https://www.aati-us.com/instruments/fragment-analyzer/crispr/>. 

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Effects. Digital image. Genetics Home Reference. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/duchenne-and-becker-muscular-dystrophy>. 

"Gersbach Lab." In Vivo Genome Editing Improves Muscle Function in a Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. | Gersbach Lab. N.p., Jan. 2016. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <http://gersbach.bme.duke.edu/publications/vivo-genome-editing-improves-muscle-function-mouse-model-duchenne-muscular-dystrophy-0>. 

Muscular Dystrophy Diagram. Digital image. Pintrest. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <https://www.pinterest.com/explore/muscular-dystrophy-symptoms/>. 

Skerrett, Patrick. "Experts Debate: Are We Playing with Fire When We Edit Human Genes?" STAT. STAT, 09 Mar. 2016. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <https://www.statnews.com/2015/11/17/gene-editing-embryo-crispr/>. 

"What Is CRISPR-Cas9?" Facts. The Public Engagement Team at the Wellcome Genome Campus, 19 Dec. 2016. Web. 26 Jan. 2017. <http://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-crispr-cas9>.